What Were the Lesser-Known Abuses in Catholic-Run Boarding Schools for Native Americans in the United States and Canada, Including Cover-Ups That Persisted into the Late 20th Century?

Brief Overview

• For over a century, the Catholic Church operated boarding schools in the United States and Canada aimed at assimilating Native American and Indigenous children into Euro-American and Euro-Canadian cultures.
• These schools, often funded by the U.S. and Canadian governments, forcibly separated children from their families, stripping them of their cultural identities, languages, and spiritual practices.
• Widespread physical, emotional, and sexual abuses were inflicted on students, with many survivors reporting severe trauma that has persisted across generations.
• The Catholic Church and government officials frequently concealed evidence of these abuses, delaying accountability and justice for decades.
• Investigations in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, including survivor testimonies, have shed light on the scale of these atrocities and the Church’s role in them.
• Recent efforts by the Catholic Church, including apologies from Pope Francis, aim to address this painful history, though many Indigenous communities seek further acknowledgment and reparative action.

Detailed Response

Historical Context of Catholic-Run Boarding Schools

The Catholic Church played a significant role in the operation of boarding schools for Native American and Indigenous children in the United States and Canada, beginning in the 19th century. These institutions were part of a broader governmental policy to assimilate Indigenous peoples into Euro-American and Euro-Canadian societies, often under the guise of education. In the United States, the federal government collaborated with Christian denominations, including the Catholic Church, to establish over 400 boarding schools between 1819 and 1969. In Canada, the Indian residential school system, active from the 1880s to 1997, was similarly funded by the government and managed by churches, with the Catholic Church operating approximately 60% of the 139 schools. The stated goal was to “civilize” Indigenous children, a policy rooted in colonial ideologies that viewed Native cultures as inferior. Children as young as four were forcibly removed from their families, often taken hundreds of miles away to remote facilities. The Church’s involvement was justified by a missionary zeal to Christianize Indigenous populations, aligning with the broader aim of cultural eradication. This approach reflected a belief that Native spiritual practices were incompatible with Christian values, as outlined in Romans 12:2, which calls for transformation through renewal. The schools enforced strict rules, including prohibitions on speaking Native languages or practicing traditional customs. The trauma inflicted by these policies has been recognized as a form of cultural genocide by scholars and Indigenous leaders.

Nature of Abuses in the Schools

The abuses in Catholic-run boarding schools were systemic and multifaceted, targeting the physical, emotional, and spiritual well-being of Native children. Physical abuse included beatings, whippings, and confinement for minor infractions, such as speaking Native languages or failing to comply with school rules. Survivors have recounted being strapped, shackled, or forced into degrading punishments, such as scrubbing floors on their hands and knees. Sexual abuse was alarmingly prevalent, with a Washington Post investigation documenting at least 122 priests, sisters, and brothers accused of abusing Native children across 22 U.S. boarding schools since the 1890s. In Canada, similar patterns emerged, with survivor testimonies detailing sexual assaults by clergy and staff at schools like the Muskowekwan Residential School in Saskatchewan. Emotional abuse was embedded in the schools’ design, as children were stripped of their names, given English or biblical names, and forbidden from contacting their families. Spiritual abuse occurred through forced conversions to Christianity, often involving baptism and mandatory church attendance, which violated the children’s cultural heritage. The Catechism of the Catholic Church emphasizes the dignity of the human person (CCC 1700), yet these practices dehumanized students, treating them as objects of reform rather than individuals with inherent worth. Poor living conditions, including malnutrition and overcrowding, compounded the suffering, leading to high mortality rates from diseases like tuberculosis. The intergenerational trauma from these abuses continues to impact Native communities, manifesting in higher rates of poverty, substance abuse, and suicide.

Specific Cases of Abuse in the United States

In the United States, specific accounts of abuse highlight the brutality faced by Native children. Geraldine Charbonneau Dubourt, a member of the Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa, reported being raped multiple times by a priest at St. Paul’s Indian Mission School in Marty, South Dakota, at age 16. She and her eight sisters were among numerous victims at the school, where priests and nuns allegedly perpetrated or facilitated abuse. Dubourt also claimed she was forced to undergo an abortion, a procedure overseen by Catholic sisters, adding to her trauma. Another survivor, Jim Labelle, a former student at the Wrangell Institute in Alaska, described being sent 700 miles from his Inupiaq community and subjected to relentless abuse, including being stripped of his name. A 2021 federal investigation led by Interior Secretary Deb Haaland documented over 500 deaths at U.S. boarding schools, with estimates suggesting thousands more. At St. Francis Indian Mission School on the Rosebud Reservation, survivors uncovered letters from priests acknowledging abuse by a colleague, Brother Francis Chapman, yet no action was taken. These accounts reveal a pattern of unchecked abuse enabled by the schools’ isolation and the Church’s authority. The Catholic Church’s teachings on the protection of children (CCC 2284-2287) stand in stark contrast to these actions, which violated the moral obligation to safeguard the vulnerable. The scale of abuse was likely underreported, as many victims were silenced by fear or shame.

Specific Cases of Abuse in Canada

In Canada, the residential school system mirrored the U.S. experience, with Catholic-run schools responsible for widespread abuses. At the Muskowekwan Residential School, survivor Leona Wolf recounted how Father Joyal molested girls, including her cousin, who was only eight years old. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) of Canada, established in 2008, collected testimonies from over 6,750 survivors, revealing patterns of physical, sexual, and psychological abuse. Children were often referred to by numbers instead of names, a practice that dehumanized them and caused lasting trauma, as described by Chief Wilton Littlechild, who was sexually abused at age six. The TRC’s 2015 report concluded that the schools were designed to sever Indigenous children from their culture, constituting “cultural genocide.” Over 4,120 children are officially recorded as having died in Canadian residential schools, though the discovery of over 1,300 unmarked graves at sites like Kamloops and Cowessess suggests a higher toll. The Catholic Church’s role in administering these schools was significant, with 44 schools operated by Catholic dioceses and religious communities. The Church’s moral teachings on the sanctity of life (CCC 2258) were disregarded, as children faced neglect and abuse under its care. Survivors like Andrew Paul described chronic hunger and rancid food, which weakened their health and increased mortality from diseases. The legacy of these abuses continues to affect Indigenous communities, with ongoing calls for justice and healing.

Institutional Cover-Ups in the United States

The Catholic Church in the United States engaged in efforts to conceal abuses at Native American boarding schools, delaying accountability well into the late 20th century. At St. Francis Indian Mission School, lawyers discovered letters in 2011 that revealed priests’ knowledge of Brother Francis Chapman’s abuse of children, including incidents in the school’s basement. These letters, described as “smoking gun” evidence, showed that church officials failed to act, allowing the abuse to continue. The Catholic Diocese of Sioux Falls, which oversaw St. Paul’s Indian Mission School, has argued in court that it was not responsible for abuses committed by priests and nuns, claiming it did not directly operate the school. This legal strategy has frustrated survivors, as South Dakota’s 2010 law blocked those over 40 from suing institutions for childhood abuse, limiting legal recourse. The Church’s reluctance to release full archival records has further obscured the extent of the abuses. The Catechism calls for truth and justice in human relationships (CCC 1807), yet these cover-ups violated that principle, prioritizing institutional protection over victims’ rights. Some dioceses have offered settlements to survivors, but these are often seen as insufficient compared to the scale of harm. The 2002 Boston Globe investigation into clergy abuse was a turning point, encouraging Native survivors to come forward, as it demonstrated that the Church could be held accountable. Despite this, many survivors still await comprehensive acknowledgment and reparative measures.

Institutional Cover-Ups in Canada

In Canada, the Catholic Church’s role in covering up abuses at residential schools was equally significant. Church officials were often aware of abusive conditions but failed to intervene, as evidenced by government medical inspector P.H. Bryce’s 1907 report, which highlighted a 24% mortality rate among Indigenous children in residential schools. Despite such findings, the Church and government continued to operate the schools without addressing systemic issues like malnutrition or abuse. The TRC noted that records of abuses were often withheld by both the government and the Church, complicating efforts to document the full scope of harm. In some cases, headstones at school cemeteries were removed, as at the Marieval Residential School, obscuring evidence of deaths. The Church’s moral obligation to protect the vulnerable (CCC 2270) was neglected, as officials prioritized institutional reputation over justice. It was not until the 1990s, when survivors like Phil Fontaine publicly shared their experiences, that widespread attention was drawn to the abuses. The Catholic Church’s response included the establishment of the Catholic Aboriginal Council in 1998 and financial contributions to healing initiatives, but these were criticized as inadequate. The discovery of unmarked graves in 2021 forced further reckoning, prompting Pope Francis’s 2022 apology. However, many Indigenous leaders argue that the Church has yet to fully disclose its records or accept institutional responsibility.

The Role of Church Doctrine in Justifying Abuses

The Catholic Church’s involvement in boarding schools was rooted in a missionary ethos that viewed Indigenous cultures as barriers to salvation. This perspective was influenced by historical papal documents, such as those from the 15th century, which justified colonial expansion and the conversion of non-European peoples. The Church’s teachings on evangelization (CCC 849-856) emphasize sharing the Gospel with respect for human dignity, but the boarding school system often disregarded this principle. Missionaries believed they were saving Indigenous children by imposing Christianity, a belief that led to the suppression of Native spiritual practices. The phrase “kill the Indian, and save the man,” coined by Richard Henry Pratt, encapsulated this mindset, which was implicitly supported by Church practices. Children were baptized and given Christian names, often against their will, in an effort to erase their cultural identities. The Catechism’s call for respect for cultural diversity (CCC 1901) was ignored, as the Church prioritized assimilation over mutual respect. This theological justification enabled abuses, as clergy saw their actions as part of a divine mission. The failure to recognize Indigenous spiritualities as valid expressions of faith contributed to the systemic harm. The Church’s later acknowledgment of these errors reflects a shift toward greater cultural sensitivity, but the damage remains profound.

Impact on Native American and Indigenous Communities

The abuses in Catholic-run boarding schools left deep scars on Native American and Indigenous communities, with effects persisting into the 21st century. The forced separation of children from their families disrupted traditional parenting practices, leaving many survivors ill-equipped to raise their own children. This intergenerational trauma has contributed to social challenges, including poverty rates of one in three Native Americans and suicide rates higher than any other racial group in the United States. In Canada, similar patterns exist, with Indigenous women facing sexual violence at rates three times higher than the general population. The loss of language and cultural practices has further alienated communities from their heritage, as children were punished for speaking their native tongues. The Catechism emphasizes the importance of family as the foundation of society (CCC 2207), yet the boarding school system undermined this principle by fracturing family bonds. Survivors like Basil Brave Heart have spoken of forgiving the Church and government, drawing on traditional teachings, but many others struggle with unresolved pain. The Church’s failure to fully address this legacy has left communities wary of its intentions. Efforts like the Catholic Truth and Healing initiative aim to document the Church’s role, but survivors demand more than archival transparency. The call for land restoration and cultural revitalization remains central to healing efforts.

Efforts at Accountability and Apology

The Catholic Church has taken steps to address its role in boarding school abuses, though these efforts are often seen as incomplete. In Canada, the 2008 TRC prompted apologies from the Anglican, United, and Presbyterian churches, but the Catholic Church’s response was slower. In 2022, Pope Francis issued a historic apology during a visit to Canada, expressing “sorrow and shame” for the actions of individual Catholics in the residential school system. He acknowledged the abuse and cultural harm inflicted, aligning with the Church’s call for repentance (CCC 1431). However, Indigenous leaders criticized the apology for not acknowledging the Church’s institutional role, as it focused on individual actions. In the United States, no formal papal apology has been issued for boarding school abuses, though some dioceses have offered settlements to survivors. The U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops has expressed sorrow and a desire for dialogue, but concrete actions remain limited. The Catechism’s emphasis on restitution for harm done (CCC 2412) suggests that financial settlements alone are insufficient without broader reparative measures. The Church’s ongoing operation of schools like Red Cloud in South Dakota, now culturally sensitive, shows an attempt to rebuild trust. Yet, survivors and advocates continue to call for full disclosure of records and a comprehensive apology.

Legal Challenges and Limitations

Survivors of boarding school abuses have faced significant legal barriers in seeking justice. In the United States, South Dakota’s 2010 law prevented those over 40 from suing institutions for childhood abuse, effectively blocking many Native survivors from pursuing claims against the Catholic Church. Some lawsuits, such as those against the Diocese of Sioux Falls, succeeded when evidence of cover-ups was uncovered, but many cases were dismissed due to the Church’s argument that it did not directly oversee the schools. In Canada, a 2007 class-action settlement provided billions of dollars to survivors, but the Catholic Church’s financial contributions were modest compared to other denominations. The TRC’s work helped document abuses, but legal accountability for the Church remains limited due to withheld records. The Catechism’s teaching on justice (CCC 1807) calls for repairing harm, yet legal obstacles have often protected the Church from full accountability. Survivors like Geraldine Charbonneau Dubourt have expressed frustration at the lack of justice, as their cases were dismissed despite credible allegations. The 2002 Boston Globe investigation inspired some survivors to come forward, as it showed that powerful institutions could be challenged. However, the Church’s complex structure, with independent dioceses and religious orders, has complicated efforts to assign responsibility. Ongoing advocacy for a U.S. Truth and Healing Commission seeks to address these gaps.

The Role of Survivors in Seeking Justice

Survivors have been instrumental in bringing attention to the abuses in Catholic-run boarding schools. In the United States, individuals like Jim Labelle and Geraldine Charbonneau Dubourt have shared their stories, often at great personal cost, to demand accountability. In Canada, leaders like Phil Fontaine, who spoke publicly in 1990 about his abuse at Fort Alexander Residential School, paved the way for the TRC and broader awareness. These testimonies have challenged the Church’s narrative and forced public reckoning. The Catechism’s call to bear witness to the truth (CCC 2471) aligns with survivors’ efforts to speak out, despite institutional resistance. Many survivors have faced stigma and trauma in recounting their experiences, yet their courage has inspired others to come forward. Organizations like the National Native American Boarding School Healing Coalition have supported survivors by advocating for investigations and reparative policies. The discovery of unmarked graves in Canada amplified survivors’ voices, leading to renewed calls for justice. In the United States, the Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative, launched in 2021, reflects survivors’ influence in pushing for federal acknowledgment. Their stories continue to shape the path toward healing and reconciliation.

The Church’s Response to Modern Criticism

The Catholic Church has faced growing criticism for its role in boarding school abuses, prompting varied responses. In Canada, the Catholic Aboriginal Council and contributions to healing funds represent attempts to address the legacy of residential schools. Pope Francis’s 2022 apology was a significant step, though many Indigenous leaders felt it fell short of accepting institutional responsibility. In the United States, the Church has been slower to respond, with no papal apology specifically addressing boarding schools. Some dioceses have engaged in dialogue with Native communities, and schools like St. Labre in Montana now offer culturally sensitive education. The Catechism’s emphasis on reconciliation (CCC 1469) underscores the need for the Church to seek forgiveness through action, not just words. Critics argue that the Church’s reluctance to release all archival records hinders true accountability. The U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops has expressed a commitment to healing, but tangible steps remain limited. The Church’s modern mission includes respecting cultural diversity (CCC 1901), a shift from its earlier assimilationist approach. Ongoing pressure from survivors and advocates continues to shape the Church’s response.

Intergenerational Trauma and Healing Efforts

The intergenerational trauma caused by boarding schools remains a significant challenge for Native American and Indigenous communities. The forced separation of children disrupted family structures, leading to cycles of dysfunction that persist today. Survivors often struggled to form healthy relationships or pass on cultural knowledge, contributing to social issues like substance abuse and poverty. In Canada, the TRC’s 2015 report highlighted how these traumas have affected multiple generations, with similar findings in the U.S. through the Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative. The Church’s teachings on healing through charity and compassion (CCC 2447) call for active support for affected communities. Initiatives like the Anglican Healing Fund and the Catholic Aboriginal Council have funded community-led healing projects, but their scope is limited. Survivors like Basil Brave Heart emphasize forgiveness rooted in Indigenous spirituality, showing resilience despite the Church’s failures. The rediscovery of Native languages and cultural practices is a key part of healing, supported by organizations like the National Native American Boarding School Healing Coalition. The Church’s role in these efforts remains contentious, as many communities demand more than financial contributions. True healing requires acknowledgment, restitution, and support for cultural revitalization.

The Call for a Truth and Healing Commission

Advocates in the United States have called for a Truth and Healing Commission, modeled on Canada’s TRC, to investigate boarding school abuses comprehensively. The proposed Senate Bill 1723 aims to create a multiyear process to document survivor testimonies and uncover the full extent of harm. The National Native American Boarding School Healing Coalition has been a key supporter, emphasizing the need for culturally responsive investigations. The Catechism’s teaching on truth (CCC 2464) supports the pursuit of transparency to address past wrongs. Such a commission would examine the Church’s role alongside the government’s, potentially uncovering additional evidence of cover-ups. Survivors argue that without a formal process, the Church’s apologies and settlements lack depth. In Canada, the TRC’s success in amplifying survivor voices has inspired U.S. advocates, though progress remains slow. The Church’s cooperation, including full access to its archives, would be critical to the commission’s success. The 2021 discovery of unmarked graves in Canada galvanized support for such an initiative, highlighting the urgency of addressing this history. A commission could pave the way for meaningful reconciliation and justice.

The Church’s Moral Responsibility

The Catholic Church bears a moral responsibility to address the abuses committed in its boarding schools, as outlined in its teachings on sin and repentance (CCC 1849-1851). The systemic nature of the abuses, coupled with institutional cover-ups, violates the Church’s commitment to protect the vulnerable and uphold justice. While individual apologies, such as Pope Francis’s in Canada, are steps forward, they do not fully address the Church’s role as an institution. The Catechism calls for restitution to repair harm (CCC 2412), suggesting that the Church must go beyond apologies to support survivors and their communities. This could include funding cultural revitalization programs, releasing all relevant records, and advocating for land restoration. The Church’s failure to act decisively in the past has eroded trust among Native communities, many of whom view its efforts as insufficient. The teachings on charity (CCC 2447) emphasize practical support for those in need, which could guide the Church’s response. Some dioceses and religious orders have begun to engage with Native communities, but these efforts are inconsistent. The Church’s moral authority depends on its willingness to confront this history openly. Survivors and advocates continue to press for accountability, rooted in the Church’s own principles.

Ongoing Efforts by Native Communities

Native American and Indigenous communities have led efforts to reclaim their cultural heritage and heal from boarding school traumas. Organizations like the National Native American Boarding School Healing Coalition have advocated for investigations, reparations, and cultural revitalization. In the United States, tribes have pushed for the repatriation of children’s remains, as seen at the Carlisle Indian School, where efforts began in 2016. In Canada, the discovery of unmarked graves has spurred community-led searches for additional burial sites. These efforts reflect a commitment to honoring ancestors and restoring cultural identity, in line with the Church’s call to respect human dignity (CCC 1700). Survivors have also worked to preserve Native languages and traditions, countering the schools’ attempts at erasure. Community healing circles and storytelling initiatives have provided spaces for survivors to share their experiences. The Church’s role in these efforts is complex, as some communities welcome its support, while others remain skeptical. The Catechism’s emphasis on solidarity (CCC 1939) suggests that the Church should partner with Native communities in their healing processes. These grassroots efforts demonstrate the resilience of Indigenous peoples in the face of historical trauma.

The Path to Reconciliation

Reconciliation between the Catholic Church and Native American and Indigenous communities requires a multifaceted approach. The Church must fully acknowledge its institutional role in the abuses, moving beyond apologies for individual actions. Releasing all archival records would demonstrate transparency and align with the Church’s commitment to truth (CCC 2464). Financial restitution, while important, is not enough; survivors seek face-to-face acknowledgment from Church leaders, as emphasized by Deborah Parker of the National Native American Boarding School Healing Coalition. Supporting cultural revitalization, such as funding Native language programs, would show a commitment to repairing harm. The Catechism’s call for reconciliation (CCC 1469) emphasizes restoring relationships through mutual respect and understanding. In Canada, the Church’s contributions to healing funds and Pope Francis’s apology are steps in this direction, but more is needed. In the United States, the absence of a formal papal apology remains a point of contention. Collaborative efforts with Native communities, such as those at Red Cloud Indian School, offer a model for rebuilding trust. The path to reconciliation is long, but it begins with truth, accountability, and genuine partnership.

Conclusion

The abuses in Catholic-run boarding schools for Native American and Indigenous children represent a dark chapter in the Church’s history, marked by physical, emotional, and sexual violence, as well as cultural erasure. The Church’s role in covering up these abuses, particularly into the late 20th century, compounded the harm, delaying justice for survivors. While recent efforts, such as Pope Francis’s apology in Canada and diocesan settlements in the United States, signal progress, many Indigenous communities view these as insufficient without full institutional accountability. The Catechism’s teachings on justice, truth, and reconciliation (CCC 1807, 2464, 1469) provide a framework for the Church to address this legacy through transparency, restitution, and support for cultural revitalization. Survivors’ testimonies have been critical in exposing the truth, inspiring investigations, and advocating for healing. The call for a U.S. Truth and Healing Commission reflects the ongoing need for a comprehensive reckoning. Native communities continue to lead efforts to heal and reclaim their heritage, demonstrating resilience in the face of profound trauma. The Church’s moral responsibility is clear: it must confront its past, support survivors, and work toward genuine reconciliation. This history serves as a reminder of the harm caused by cultural arrogance and the importance of upholding human dignity. The journey toward healing is ongoing, requiring commitment from both the Church and society at large.